King Anawrahta (reigned 1044-77) was the first king
of all of Myanmar. He unified the Burman people, introduced them to
Theravada Buddhism and set Pagan on the road to magnificence and
splendor. During his reign Anawrahta united
the northern homeland of the Myanmar people with the Mon kingdoms of
the south. He extended his dominion as far north as the kingdom of
Nanchao. west to Arakan. south to the Gulf of Martaban (near what is now
Yangon) and as far east as what is now northern Thailand. [Source:
Myanmar Travel Information ~]
Historically verifiable Burmese history begins with
Anawrahta’s accession. In 1057 he captured the Mon city of Thaton. a
center of Indian civilization. Its fall led the other Mon rulers to
submit to the Burmans for the first time and this led to Burman
dominance of the Irrawaddy River delta.
Anawrahta was converted to Theravada Buddhism by a Mon monk. Shin
Arahan. As king. Anawrahta strove to convert his people from the
influence of the Ari. a Mahayana Tantric Buddhist sect that was at that
time predominant in central Myanmar. Primarily through his efforts.
Theravada Buddhism became the dominant religion of Myanmar and the
inspiration for its culture and civilization. He maintained diplomatic
relations with King Vijayabahu of Ceylon. who in 1071 requested the
assistance of Myanmar monks to help revive the Buddhist faith. The
Ceylonese king sent Anawrahta a replica of the Buddha's tooth relic.
which was placed in the Shwezigon pagoda at Pagan. ~
During his 33 year reign Anawrahta founded the Pagan
Empire, unifying for the first time the regions that would later
constitute the modern-day Burma. Anawrahta's successors by the late 12th
century had extended their influence farther south into the upper Malay
peninsula, at least to the Salween river in the east, below the current
China border in the farther north, and to the west, northern Arakan and
the Chin Hills. (The Burmese Chronicles claim Pagan's suzerainty over
the entire Chao Phraya river valley, and the Siamese chronicles include
the lower Malay peninsula down to the Straits of Malacca to Pagan's realm.) By the early 12th century, Pagan had emerged as a major power
alongside the Khmer Empire in Southeast Asia, recognized by the Chinese
Song Dynasty, and Indian Chola dynasty. Well into the mid-13th century,
most of mainland Southeast Asia was under some degree of control of
either the Pagan Empire or the Khmer Empire. [Source: Wikipedia +]
Anawrahta also implemented a series of key social,
religious and economic reforms that would have a lasting impact in
Burmese history. His social and religious reforms later developed into
the modern-day Burmese culture. The most important development was the
introduction of Theravada Buddhism to Upper Burma. During his reign
King Anawrahta was a prolific dam- and canal-builder, especially along
the Zawgyi river. He viewed his hydro projects as atonement for killing
his foster-brother Sokkate.
King Anawrahta and the Defeat of the Mon
In A.D. 1057 King Anawrahta defeated the Mon Kingdom
to the south, creating an empire that was nearly the shape and size of
present-day Myanmar as well as the Menam Valley in Thailand.
Anawrahta attacked in the Mon around the same time the First Crusade was
taking Jerusalem because the Mon king would not provide him with holy
relics and accurate scriptures he requested in his crusade to purify Pagan's Buddhism. When Mon was defeated Anawrahta invited their king and court to his palace and treated them like royal guests. [Source: W.E. Garret, National Geographic, March 1971.]
Anawrahta established his capital in Pagan with 30
elephant loads of Mon treasures and 30,000 Mon prisoner-artisans, which
included, according to one inscription, "such men as were skilled in
carving, and painting; masons, moulders of plaster and flower-patterns;
blacksmiths, silversmiths, braziers, founders of gongs and cymbals,
filigree flower-workers; doctors and trainers of elephants and horses;
makers of shields...cannon muskets, and bows, men skilled in frying,
poaching, baking...hairdressers, and men cunning in perfumes, odors,
flowers and the juices of flowers."
After defeating the Mon,King Anawrahta converted to
Therevada Buddhism and set in motion a merit-earning temple-building
campaign. He made Therevada Buddhism the official religion, driving out
other Buddhist sects and suppressing and regulating animists. Contact
with the Mons enriched Myanmar civilization. The Mons gave the Myanmar
an artistic and literary tradition and a system of writing. The earliest
extant Myanmar inscription. written in Mon characters appeared in 1058.
King Anawrahta and Theravada Buddhism
Aruguably King Anawrahta’s greatest and most lasting
achievement was was the introduction of Theravada Buddhism to Upper
Burma after Pagan's conquest of the Thaton Kingdom in 1057. Supported by
royal patronage, the Buddhist school gradually spread to the village
level in the next three centuries although Tantric, Mahayana, Brahmanic,
and animist practices remained heavily entrenched at all social strata.
[Source: Wikipedia]
A war broke out between King Anawrahta of Pagan and
the Mon King Manuhar. when King Manuhar refused to hand over sacred
Buddhist texts to Pagan. After the war. King Manuhar was captured and
was kept under restrictions for a long time in Pagan until his death. He
built Manuhar Temple while he was there.
According to baganmyanmar.com: “Anawrahta was a king
of strong religious zeal as well as one of great power. His clay votive
tablets, made to acquire merit, are found widely in Myanmar from Katha
in the north to Twante in the south. These votive tablets usually have,
on the obverse, a seated image of the Buddha in the earth-touching
attitude, with two lines underneath which express the essence of the
Buddhist creed: ‘The Buddha hath the causes told/ Of all things
springing from causes; / And also how things cease to be, / 'Tis this
the Mighty Monk proclaims.’
On the reverse would be the prayer: ‘Desiring that he may be freed from
samscira the Great Prosperous King Aniruddha himself made this image of
the Lord.’” [Source: baganmyanmar.com **]
“The chronicles relate that a monk from Thaton, Shin
Arahan, came to Anawrahta in Bagan and preached to him the Law, on which
Anawrahta was seized with an ecstasy of faith and said, "Master, we
have no other refuge than thee! From this day forth, my master, we
dedicate our body and our life to thee! And, master, from thee I take my
doctrine!" Shin Arahan further taught Anawrahta that without the
Scriptures, the Tipitaka, there could be no study, and that it was only
with the Tipitaka that the Religion would last long. Anawrahta, informed
that there were thirty sets of the Tipitaka at Thaton, sent an envoy
with presents to its king,Manuha, and asked for the Tipitaka. Manuha
refused, on which Anawrahta sent a mighty army, conquered Thaton, and
brought back the thirty sets of Tipitaka on Manuha's thirty-two white
elephants, as well as Manuha and his court and all manners of artisans
and craftsmen. **
“The establishment of Theravada Buddhism as the
dominant religion of Myanmar did not preclude the existence of other
schools and beliefs. Prior to the coming of Buddhism there existed in
Myanmar a folk religion which involved the worship of nats or spirits to
whom offerings were made. The spirits were not only those of nature,
but also of personages who had died a violent or tragic death. At Bagan
the cult of the Mahagiri ("Great Mountain") rato-brother and sister who
had their abode at Mount Popa, 40 miles to the southeast of Bagan-was
particularly strong This folk religion persisted in a symbiotic
existence with Theravada Buddhism at Bagan. But that was not all.
Mahayana Buddhism, with its pantheon of Bodhisattvas who had postponed
their entry into nirvana to help their fellow creatures find salvation,
also continued to have a tenuous presence at Bagan, a presence which can
be detected in some of the details of the monuments. There was a
presence too of Hinduism, which the court drew upon for some of its
rituals and ceremonies.” **
Pagan Empire Under King Anawrahta
Anawrahta proved an energetic king. His acts as king
were to strengthen his kingdom's economic base. In the first decade of
his reign, he invested much effort into turning the arid parched lands
of central Burma into a rice granary, successfully building/enlarging
weirs and canals, mainly around the Kyaukse district, east of Pagan. The
newly irrigated regions attracted people, giving him with an increased
manpower base. He graded every town and village according to the levy it
could raise. The region, known as Ledwin (lit. "rice country"), became
the granary, the economic key of the north country. History shows that
one who gained control of Kyaukse became kingmaker in Upper Burma.
[Source: Wikipedia +]
By the mid-1050s, Anawrahta's reforms had turned Pagan
into a regional power, and he looked to expand. Over the next ten
years, he founded the Pagan Empire, the Irrawaddy valley at the core,
surrounded by tributary states. Anawrahta began his campaigns in the
nearer Shan Hills, and extended conquests to Lower Burma down to the
Tenasserim coast to Phuket and North Arakan. Estimates of the extent of
his empire vary greatly. The Burmese and Siamese chronicles report an
empire which covered the present-day Burma and northern Thailand.
The Siamese chronicles assert that Anawrahta conquered the entire Menam
valley, and received tribute from the Khmer king. One Siamese chronicle
states that Anawrahta's armies invaded the Khmer kingdom and sacked the
city of Angkor, and another one goes so far as to say that Anawrahta
even visited Java to receive his tribute. +
Archaeological evidence however confirms only a
smaller empire of the Irrawaddy valley and nearer periphery. Anawrahta's
victory terracotta votive tablets emblazoned with his name in Sanskrit
have been found along the Tenasserim coastline in the south, Katha in
the north, Thazi in the east and Minbu in the west. In the northeast, a
series of 43 forts Anawrahta established along the eastern foothills,
of which 33 still exist as villages, reveal the effective extent of his
authority. Moreover, most scholars attribute Pagan's control of
peripheral regions (Arakan, Shan Hills) to later kings—Arakan to
Alaungsithu, and cis-Salween Shan Hills to Narapatisithu. (Even those
latter-day kings may not have had more than nominal control over the
farther peripheral regions. For example, some scholars such as Victor
Lieberman argue that Pagan did not have any "effective authority" over
Arakan. +
At any rate, all scholars accept that during the 11th
century, Pagan consolidated its hold of Upper Burma, and established its
authority over Lower Burma. The emergence of Pagan Empire would have a
lasting impact on Burmese history as well as the history of mainland Southeast Asia.
The conquest of Lower Burma checked the Khmer Empire's encroachment
into the Tenasserim coast, secured control of the peninsular ports,
which were transit points between the Indian Ocean and China, and
facilitated growing cultural exchange with the external world: Mons of
Lower Burma, India and Ceylon. Equally important was Anawrahta's
conversion to Theravada Buddhism from his native Ari Buddhism. The
Burmese king provided the Buddhist school, which had been in retreat
elsewhere in South Asia and Southeast Asia, a much needed reprieve and a
safe shelter. By the 1070s, Pagan had emerged as the main Theravada
stronghold. In 1071, it helped to restart the Theravada Buddhism in
Ceylon whose Buddhist clergy had been wiped out by the Cholas. Another
key development according to traditional scholarship was the emergence
of the Burmese script, believed to have been derived from the Mon script
in 1058, one year after the conquest of Thaton. However recent
research, though not yet settled, suggests that the Burmese script may
have been derived in the 10th century from the Pyu script instead. +
Pagan Kings After Anawrahta
Anawrahta was followed by a line of able kings who
cemented Pagan's place in history. Pagan entered a gilded age that would
last for the next two centuries. Aside from a few occasional
rebellions, the kingdom was largely peaceful during the period.
King Anawrahta was succeeded by King Kyansittha (r.
1084–1113), a ruthless general who fell in love with Anawrahta’s wife
and later took over the throne. King Alaungsithu (1113–1167) came to
power in 1113. He presided over Pagan when it was a great trading empire
and even captained a ship with a crew of 800 to Ceylon, which was over
1,500 miles away. Also regarded as a poet, he was smothered to death by
his own son, Narathu, on a terrace of Schwegugyi Temple. By one count
Alaungsithu had reached the age of 101 and his son was impatient to
claim the throne.
After killing his father, King Narathu (1160-65)
secured the throne by killing his uncle, his own wife and son and
poisoned his older half brother who was heir to the throne and married
one of his father’s mistresses. He in turn was murdered in 1170.
Although there is no evidence to back up the claim, it is said he was
stabbed to death by his Hindu wife because she found his toilet habits
offensive. He in turn is said to have killed one of his wives by
stabbing her through the heart with a sword after she complained that he
never washed.
King Thisithus Dhamana reportedly drank a
life-prolonging elixir made from the hearts of 6,000 humans. King
Narathihapate (1256–1287) is was said never sat down to fewer than 300
curries a day. The way some Burmese bring out dish after dish for their
guests from their small kitchens detached from their houses, you just
might believe them.
Pagan Grows and Matures Under Kings Kyansittha and Alaungsithu
King Kyansittha (r. 1084–1113) successfully melded the
diverse cultural influences introduced into Pagan by Anawrahta's
conquests. He patronized Mon scholars and artisans who emerged as the
intellectual elite. He appeased the Pyus by linking his genealogy to the
real and mythical ancestors of Sri Ksetra, the symbol of the Pyu golden
past, and by calling the kingdom Pyu, even though it had been ruled by a
Burman ruling class. He supported and favored Theravada Buddhism while
tolerating other religious groups. To be sure, he pursued these policies
all the while maintaining the Burman military rule. By the end of his
28-year reign, Pagan had emerged a major power alongside the Khmer
Empire in Southeast Asia, recognized as a sovereign kingdom by the
Chinese Song Dynasty, and the Indian Chola Dynasty. Several diverse
elements—art, architecture, religion, language, literature, ethnic
plurality—had begun to synthesize. [Source: Wikipedia +]
Pagan's rise continued under Alaungsithu (r.
1113–1167), who focused on standardizing administrative and economic
systems. The king, also known as Sithu I, actively expanded frontier
colonies and built new irrigation systems throughout the kingdom. He
also introduced standardized weights and measures throughout the country
to assist administration as well as trade. The standardization provided
an impetus for the monetization of Pagan's economy, the full impact of
which however would not be felt until later in the 12th century. The
kingdom prospered from increased agricultural output as well as from
inland and maritime trading networks. Much of the wealth was devoted to
temple building. Temple building projects, which began in earnest during
Kyansittha's reign, became increasingly grandiose, and began to
transition into a distinctively Burman architectural style from earlier
Pyu and Mon norms. By the end of Sithu I's reign, Pagan enjoyed a more
synthesized culture, an efficient government and a prosperous economy.
However a corresponding growth in population also put pressure on "the
fixed relationship between productive land and population", forcing the
later kings to expand. +
Dr. Richard M. Cooler wrote in “The Art and Culture of
Burma”: “Most of the major monuments at Pagan were built in the century
following the death of King Anawrahta, particularly during the reigns
of his son) King Kyanzittha (1084-1112) and King Narapatizithu
(1170-1211). In fact so many temples were constructed that the 12th
century is known as the Golden Age of Burmese Temple Building. The
prototypic forms for both the Burmese stupa and the Burmese temple date
to this time, although in later periods the stupa instead of the temple
becomes the preferred building type. Also in the 12th century Pagan
became an international center for Buddhist learning. [Source: “The Art
and Culture of Burma,” Dr. Richard M. Cooler, Professor Emeritus Art
History of Southeast Asia, Former Director, Center for Burma Studies =]
“Burma became more culturally cohesive under King
Anawrahta’s second successor, King Kyanzittha, who was also an ardent
Buddhist.. Kyanzittha was a builder of impressive temples such as the
Nagayon, the Abeyadana, and the Ananda - one of the few temples to
remain in constant use since it was created and the object of national
pilgrimage. With in the brick walls of Pagan, he also built a fabulous
palace that he had described in great detail in a lengthy inscription.
The third great king Narapatisithu, constructed three great temples
including the Dhamma-yazika stupa, one of the largest pentagonal
buildings in the world. =
Pagan at Its Peak
Pagan reached the height of political and
administrative development during the reigns of Narapatisithu (Sithu II;
r. 1174–1211) and Htilominlo (r. 1211–1235). The kingdom's borders
expanded to its greatest extent. Military organization and success
reached their zenith. Monumental architecture achieved a qualitative and
quantitative standard that subsequent dynasties tried to emulate but
never succeeded in doing. The court finally developed a complex
organization that became the model for later dynasties. the agricultural
economy reached its potential in Upper Burma. The Buddhist clergy, the
sangha, enjoyed one of its most wealthy periods. Civil and criminal laws
were codified in the vernacular, Burmese, to become the basic
jurisprudence for subsequent ages. [Source: Wikipedia +]
Sithu II formally founded the Palace Guards in 1174,
the first extant record of a standing army, and pursued an expansionist
policy. Over his 27-year reign, Pagan's influence reached further south
into the Malay peninsula, at least to the Salween river in the east and
below the current China border in the farther north. (Burmese
chronicles also claim trans-Salween Shan states, including Kengtung and
Chiang Mai.) Continuing his grandfather Sithu I's policies, Sithu II
expanded the agricultural base of the kingdom with new manpower from the
conquered areas, ensuring the needed wealth for a growing royalty and
officialdom. Pagan dispatched governors to supervise more closely ports
in Lower Burma and the peninsula. In the early 13th century, Pagan,
alongside the Khmer Empire, was one of two main empires in mainland
Southeast Asia. +
His reign also saw the rise of Burmese culture which
finally emerged out of the shadows of Mon and Pyu cultures. With the
Burman leadership of the kingdom now unquestioned, the term Mranma
(Burmans) was openly used in Burmese language inscriptions. The Burmese
script became the primary script of the kingdom, replacing Pyu and Mon
scripts. His reign also saw the realignment of Burmese Buddhism with
Ceylon's Mahavihara school. The Pyus receded into the background, and
by the early 13th century, had largely assumed the Burman ethnicity. +
During this time the languages spoken in the Pagan
kingdom were Burmese, Mon, Pyu. The main religions were Theravada
Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and animism. The population in 1210 was
estimated to be between 1.5 to 2 million.
Decline of Pagan
The Pagan kingdom went into decline in the mid-13th
century as the continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth by the
1280s had severely affected the crown's ability to retain the loyalty of
courtiers and military servicemen. This ushered in a vicious circle of
internal disorders and external challenges by the Arakanese, Mons,
Mongols and Shans. Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the
four-century-old kingdom in 1287. The collapse was followed by 250 years
of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century.
[Source: Wikipedia +]
Sithu II's success in state building created stability
and prosperity throughout the kingdom. His immediate successors
Htilominlo and Kyaswa (r. 1235–1249) were able to live off the stable
and bountiful conditions he passed on with little state-building on
their part. Htilomino hardly did any governing. A devout Buddhist and
scholar, the king gave up the command of the army, and left
administration to a privy council of ministers, the forebear of the
Hluttaw. But the seeds of Pagan's decline were sowed during this
seemingly idyllic period. The state had stopped expanding but the
practice of donating tax-free land to religion had not. The continuous
growth of tax-free religious wealth greatly reduced the tax base of the
kingdom. Indeed, Htilominlo was the last of the temple builders although
most of his temples were in remote lands not in the Pagan region,
reflecting the deteriorating state of royal treasury. +
By the mid-13th century, the problem had worsened
considerably. The Upper Burma heartland over which Pagan exercised most
political control had run out of easily reclaimed irrigable tracts. Yet
their fervent desire to accumulate religious merit for better
reincarnations made it impossible for Pagan kings to halt entirely their
own or other courtiers' donations. The crown did try to reclaim some of
these lands by periodically purging the clergy in the name of Buddhist
purification, and seizing previously donated lands. Although some of the
reclamation efforts were successful, powerful Buddhist clergy by and
large successfully resisted such attempts. Ultimately, the rate of
reclamation fell behind the rate at which such lands were dedicated to
the sangha. (The problem was exacerbated to a smaller degree by powerful
ministers, who exploited succession disputes and accumulated their own
lands at the expense of the crown.) By 1280, between one and two-thirds
of Upper Burma's cultivatable land had been donated to religion. Thus
the throne lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and
military servicemen, inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and
external challenges by Mons, Mongols and Shans. +
Mongol Invasion of Pagan
Beginning in the early 13th century, the Shans began
to encircle the Pagan Empire from the north and the east. The Mongols,
who had conquered Yunnan, the former homeland of the Burmans in 1253,
began their invasion of Burma in 1277, and in 1287 sacked Pagan, ending
the Pagan kingdom's 250-year rule of the Irrawaddy valley and its
periphery. Pagan's rule of central Burma came to an end ten years later
in 1297 when it was toppled by Myinsaing. [Source: Wikipedia +]
The first signs of disorder appeared soon after
Narathihapate's accession in 1256. The inexperienced king faced revolts
in Arakanese state of Macchagiri (present-day Kyaukpyu District) in the
west, and Martaban (Mottama) in the south. The Martaban rebellion was
easily put down but Macchagiri required a second expedition before it
too was put down. The calm did not last long. Martaban again revolted
in 1281. This time, Pagan could not do anything to retake Martaban
because it was facing an existential threat from the north.
The Mongols under Kublai Khan demanded tribute, in
1271 and again in 1273. When Narathihapate refused both times, the
Mongols systematically invaded the country. In 1277, Kublai Khan
attacked Pagan after the conquest of Yunnan, reportedly after the
eccentric King Narathihapate—"the swallower of 300 dishes of curry
daily"— refused to pay a tribute and murdered an envoy sent by the Great
Khan. During his rule much of the kingdom’s resources was spent on
temple building and other indulgences that bankrupted Pagan and made it
ripe for defeat.
The first invasion in 1277 defeated the Burmese at the
battle of Ngasaunggyan, and secured their hold of Kanngai (modern-day
Yingjiang, Yunnan, 112 kilometers north of Bhamo). In 1283–84, their
forces moved south and occupied Bhamo. In 1287, Mongol armies invaded
farther south once again. Instead of defending the country, the king
fled Pagan for Lower Burma where he was assassinated by one of his sons.
There some difference in opinion as to exactly how the
Mongols defeated the Burmese. Marco Polo reported that Kublai Khan
defeated the Southeast Asian empire with only jugglers and clowns, while
the Burmese claim the Great Khan employed six million horsemen and
twenty million foot soldiers. Most historian believe the Mongol-Chinese
force consisted of 12,000 horsemen and a smaller number of foot
soldiers.
The crucial battle took place in Vochan
(Ngasaungsyan), 350 miles north of Pagan, near the Chinese border.
Mongol horses initially shied away when they confronted a Burmese army
consisted of 2,000 battle elephants and thousands of foot soldiers. But
ultimately the Mongol-Chinese force prevailed after Kublai Khan's
forces lured the Burmese army into a forest. Mounted Mongol archers
outmaneuvered and "made pincushions of Pagan's vaunted war elephants”
and “shattered the elephant cavalry's myth of invincibility." After that
Pagan was easily taken. Fearing the wrath of the Mongols, the Burmese
king abandoned the city and fled down the Irrawaddy.
It is not clear whether the Mongols Khan every
occupied Pagan. Recent research indicates that Mongol armies may not
have reached Pagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they
inflicted was probably minimal. But the damage was already done. All
the vassal states of Pagan revolted right after the king's death, and
went their own way. In the south, Wareru, the man who had seized the
governorship of Martaban in 1281, consolidated Mon-speaking regions of
Lower Burma, and declared Ramannadesa (Land of the Mon) independent on 4
April 1287. In the west too, Arakan stopped paying tribute. The
chronicles report that the eastern territories including trans-Salween
states of Keng Hung, Kengtung and Chiang Mai stopped paying tribute
although most scholars attribute Pagan's limits to the Salween. At any
rate, the 250-year-old Pagan Empire had ceased to exist.
Disintegration and Fall of Pagan
After their 1287 invasion, the Mongols moved farther
south to Tagaung but refused to fill in the power vacuum they had
created. Indeed, Emperor Kublai Khan never sanctioned an actual
occupation of Pagan. His real aim appeared to have been "to keep the
entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented." At Pagan, one
of Narathihapate's sons Kyawswa emerged king of Pagan in May 1289. But
the new "king" controlled just a small area around the capital, and had
no real army. The real power in Upper Burma now rested with three
brothers, who were former Pagan commanders, of nearby Myinsaing. When
the Hanthawaddy Kingdom of Lower Burma became a vassal of Sukhothai in
1294, it was the brothers, not Kyawswa, that sent a force to reclaim the
former Pagan territory. Though the army was driven back, it left no
doubt as to who held the real power in central Burma. In the following
years, the brothers, especially the youngest Thihathu, increasingly
acted like sovereigns. [Source: Wikipedia +]
To check the increasing power of the three brothers,
Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognized by
the Mongol emperor Temür Khan as viceroy of Pagan on 20 March 1297. The
brothers resented the new arrangement as a Mongol vassalage as it
directly reduced their power. On 17 December 1297, the three brothers
overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the Myinsaing Kingdom. The Mongols did
not know about the dethronement until June–July 1298. In response, the
Mongols launched another invasion, reaching Myinsaing on 25 January 1301
but could not break through. The besiegers took the bribes by the three
brothers, and withdrew on 6 April 1301. The Mongol government at
Yunnan executed their commanders but sent no more invasions. They
withdrew entirely from Upper Burma starting on 4 April 1303. +
By then, the city of Pagan, once home
to 200,000 people, had been reduced to a small town, never to regain
its preeminence. (It survived into the 15th century as a human
settlement.) The brothers placed one of Kyawswa's sons as the governor
of Pagan. Anawrahta's line continued to rule Pagan as governors under
Myinsaing, Pinya and Ava kingdoms until 1369. The male side of Pagan
ended there although the female side passed into Pinya and Ava royalty.
But the Pagan line continued to be claimed by successive Burmese
dynasties down to the last Burmese dynasty. +
Legacy of Pagan
The kingdom of Pagan, the "charter polity" of Burma,
had a lasting impact on Burmese history and the history of mainland
Southeast Asia. The success and longevity of Pagan's dominance over the
Irrawaddy valley enabled the ascent of Burmese language and culture, and
the spread of Burman ethnicity in Upper Burma and laid the foundation
for their continued spread elsewhere in later centuries. The 250-year
rule left a proven system of administrative and cultural norms that
would be adopted and extended by successor kingdoms—not only by the
Burmese-speaking Ava Kingdom but also by the Mon-speaking Hanthawaddy
Kingdom and Shan-speaking Shan states. [Source: Wikipedia +]
Continued cultural integration in an otherwise
politically fragmented post-Pagan Burma set the stage for a resurgence
of a unified Burmese state in the 16th century. An apt comparison can be
made with the Khmer Empire, the other Southeast Asian Empire that
Mongol invasions toppled. Various Tai-Shan peoples, who came down with
the Mongols, came to dominate the political landscapes of the two former
empires. Whereas Burma would see a resurgence, the post-Mongol Khmer
state was reduced to a mere shadow of her former self, never to regain
her preeminence. Only in the former Khmer Empire, did the Thai/Lao
ethnicity and Thai/Lao languages spread permanently at the expense of
the Mon-Khmer speaking peoples, not unlike the Burman takeover of the
Pyu realm four centuries earlier. In Burma, the result was the opposite:
the Shan leadership, as well as lowland Shan immigrants of Myinsaing,
Pinya, Sagaing and Ava Kingdoms came to adopt Burmese cultural norms,
the Burmese language, and the Burman ethnicity. The convergence of
cultural norms around existing Pagan-centered norms, at least in the
Irrawaddy valley core, in turn facilitated the latter-day political
reunification drives of Toungoo and Konbaung dynasties. +
The Pagan Empire also changed the history of mainland
Southeast Asia. Geopolitically, Pagan checked the Khmer Empire's
encroachment into the Tenasserim coast and upper Menam valley.
Culturally, the emergence of Pagan as a Theravada stronghold in the face
of an expanding Hindu Khmer Empire from the 11th to 13th centuries
provided the Buddhist school, which had been in retreat elsewhere in
South Asia and Southeast Asia, a much needed reprieve and a safe
shelter.[105] Not only did Pagan help restart Theravada Buddhism in
Ceylon but the over two centuries of patronage by a powerful empire made
Theravada Buddhism's later growth in Lan Na (northern Thailand), Siam
(central Thailand), Lan Xang (Laos), and Khmer Empire (Cambodia) in the
13th and 14th centuries possible.
Image Sources:
Text Sources:
New York Times,
Washington Post,
Los Angeles Times,
Times of London,
Lonely Planet Guides,
The Irrawaddy, Myanmar Travel Information Compton’s Encyclopedia,
The Guardian,
National Geographic,
Smithsonian magazine,
The New Yorker, Time,
Newsweek,
Reuters, AP, AFP,
Wall Street Journal,
The Atlantic Monthly,
The Economist,
Global
Viewpoint (Christian Science Monitor),
Foreign Policy, burmalibrary.org,
burmanet.org,
Wikipedia,
BBC, CNN, NBC News,
Fox News
and various
books and other publications.
© 2008 Jeffrey Hays
Last updated May 2014
http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Myanmar/sub5_5a/entry-2999.html
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